Glucose-regulating peptides are critical regulatory components of human metabolism. Various peptides have been described with biological effects that result in either an increase or decrease in serum glucose levels. These peptides tend to be highly homologous to each other, even when they possess opposite biological functions. Many glucose regulating peptides, including those used as therapeutics, are typically labile molecules exhibiting short shelf-lives, particularly when formulated in aqueous solutions. In addition, many glucose regulating peptides have limited solubility, or become aggregated during recombinant productions, requiring complex solubilization and refolding procedures. Various chemical polymers can be attached to such peptides and proteins to modify their properties. Of particular interest are hydrophilic polymers that have flexible conformations and are well hydrated in aqueous solutions. A frequently used polymer is polyethylene glycol (PEG). These polymers tend to have large hydrodynamic radii relative to their molecular weight (Kubetzko, S., et al. (2005) Mol Pharmacol, 68: 1439-54), and can result in enhanced pharmacokinetic properties. However, the chemical conjugation of polymers to proteins requires complex multi-step processes; typically, the protein component needs to be produced and purified prior to the chemical conjugation step and the conjugation step can result in the formation of heterogeneous product mixtures that need to be separated, leading to significant product loss. Alternatively, such mixtures can be used as the final pharmaceutical product, but are difficult to standardize. Some examples are currently marketed PEGylated Interferon-alpha products that are used as mixtures (Wang, B. L., et al. (1998) J Submicrosc Cytol Pathol, 30: 503-9; Dhalluin, C., et al. (2005) Bioconjug Chem, 16: 504-17). Such mixtures are difficult to reproducibly manufacture and characterize as they contain isomers with reduced or no therapeutic activity.
Albumin and immunoglobulin fragments such as Fc regions have been used to conjugate other biologically active proteins, with unpredictable outcomes with respect to increases in half-life or immunogenicity. Unfortunately, the Fc domain does not fold efficiently during recombinant expression and tends to form insoluble precipitates known as inclusion bodies. These inclusion bodies must be solubilized and functional protein must be renatured. This is a time-consuming, inefficient, and expensive process that requires additional manufacturing steps and often complex purification procedures.
Thus, there remains a significant need for compositions and methods that would improve the biological, pharmacological, safety, and/or pharmaceutical properties of glucose regulating peptides.